World Religions

Abu Bakr as the first Caliph (successor in Arabic) in 632 C.E.: Administrative leadership of the Umma, not the office of prophethood, Ali, one of Muhammad’s son in law was the main contender Question of the confluence of religious and political authority in one office problematic for many Islamic communities from this time onwards Policy of political expansion initiated under Abu Bakr but pursued under the leadership of Umar/Omar(634-644 C.E.)

Military campaign on two fronts:

Byzantine empire to the north and west Persian empire to the east Conquests of Syria in 636, Palestine in 638, and Egypt in 642C.E. Indigenous inhabitants were required to live in peace, pay taxes, and allowed to keep their own religion and customs Omar/Umar assassinated by an Iranian slave in 644C.E., succeeded by Uthman/Othman, another of Muhammad’s son-in-law: Increasing opposition from Ali Uthman/Othman’s assassination by an opponent from the Khariji sect in 656C.E.: Medina accepted Ali as the next Caliph, but Meccans, and some other prominent groups rejected Ali’s authority and accused him of collusion in the assassination plot. Ali’s authority challenged by Muawiyah, governor of Syria. Ali’s assassination by a member of a splinter group opposed to both Ali and Muawiyah in 661C.E. Ummayyad Dynasty (661-680): Caliphate moved to Damascus and expansion of Islamic empire eastward as far as the borders of China through India, and westward through north Africa into Spain and Portugal. Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258) : Muslim aristocracy of Iraq moved caliphate from Syria to Baghdad.

Mongol Empire : Conversion of Ghazan Khan (1295-1304). Ottoman Empire (1300-1922) : Status of Dhimmi to non-Muslim groups. Mughal Empire (1526-1827) : India

The Spread of Islam

The Sunni and Shia Division : Distribution of Shia and Sunni Muslims Sunni derived from “sunnah” (tradition, community, and consensus) Shia are the partisans of Ali : possibly @ 15% of the total Muslim population, majority in Iran, and some in the Indian subcontinent. Differences between the two groups based on the question of rightful succession to the office of the Caliph and extent of his authority

Shia position maintains:

1) Caliph is not simply a political figurehead, but a religious authority or “Imam”, qualified by birth as a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, and is an infallible guide endowed by God with a sinless nature

2) Belief in the second coming of the Imam: Messianic belief

Sufism

Mystical movement within Islam: Emerged from the early ascetic reactions by certain Muslims against the legalistic and ritualistic expression of Islam

Sufis maintain :

1) Truth or reality may be found not by rational knowledge but by direct and personal experience, culminating in absorption or union with the godhead

2) Sufi masters (Shaikhs) are to be venerated in their lifetime, and after death, elevated to the rank of saints

3) Celibacy is preferable to marriage Pursuit of mystical or ecstatic state of union with the godhead introduced many heterodox ideas into Muslim theology. The Whirling Dervishes of Turkey and the Poems of Jalaluddin Rumi

Islamic Scripture

Qur’an as the central miracle in Islam

Qur’an is to be read and recited

The emphasis on recitation underlies the belief (especially among the Sunnis) that Muhammad received verses from the uncreated heavenly Qur’an from angel Gabriel Disagreement on the subject of how the text was recorded : Authoritative version of the text canonized during Uthman’s/Othman’s reign Hadiths are records of the tradition of Muhammad’s time: Includes both the actual traditional practice or custom of the Prophet and written record of the traditional way of action Sunnah or tradition: Record of the actual or proper ways of doing things in the Islamic community, The practices of the companions of Muhammad in Medina considered normative . Thus, the Hadith defines the true Sunnah. Shariah : Comprehensive system of divinely ordered social structure and law from the Islamic perspective Includes both religious as well as social laws

Links to the complete text of the Qur’an in English
http://www.hti.umich.edu/k/koran/

Moral structure of Islam derived from the Qur’an (Text II, pg. 310/312)

Standards of morality based upon the relationship:

a. Between God and humans

b. Amongst the believers themselves Spirituality and social responsibility inseparable from the perspective of the believers.

IBADAT : Religious Duty or the “Five Pillars of Islam”

A. Creed or Shahda

B. Prayer or Salat

C. Almsgiving or Zakat

D. Fasting during the month of Ramadan

E. Pilgrimage or Hajj

A. Shahda is the central creed of Islam. It is the primary responsibility of the believer to accept the Shahda and repeat it faithfully

B. Salat : Five acts of devotion and prayer each day to help one to align one’s life with the Quar’anic standards : Repetition of the Fatihah or the first sura from the Quar’an (Text I, pg. 385)

Prayers at dawn, midday, mid afternoon, sunset, and at night Worship is strictly non-iconic; worshippers face Mecca while praying Friday as the special day for public prayer.

C. Zakat: Voluntary offering of the community to those in need (debtors, slaves, wayfarers, beggars etc.) Universally obligatory in Muslim societies in the past. Often levied as a tax on two and half percent of one’s accumulated wealth in many contemporary Muslim countries In non-Muslim countries, collection and distribution of Zakat undertaken by the Islamic community itself.

D. Fasting during the month of Ramadan as a religious duty except for travelers and the sick Fast lasts from dawn to dusk.

E. Hajj or the pilgrimage to Mecca is an adaptation of the pre-Islamic pilgrimage tradition during the sacred month of Dhu-al-Hijja

Duties required of the pilgrim:

Seven counterclockwise circumambulation of the Ka’ba, and walking back and forth between two hills Safa and Marwa in memory of Hagar as she searched the valley for water to quench the thirst of her son Ishmael Wearing of a white seamless garment and practicing of abstinence of food or drink during the day Prayer and meditation from noon to sunset at the Arafat plain where Muhammad is believed to have delivered his farewell sermon.

Islamic Communities after Muhammad

Muhammad’s death in 632 C.E. Political power struggle within the Islamic community Unity maintained under the first four leaders Abu Bakr as the first Caliph or successor to Muhammad (632-634C.E.) Expansion of the Islamic caliphate beyond Arabia during the reign of Umar/Omar (634-644C.E.) Umar/Omar succeeded by Uthman/Othman (644-656 C.E.) and Ali (656-661C.E.) Uthman/Othman murdered by a group of mutineers from the Arab army in Egypt and Ali finally became the Caliph Ali assassinated by a lone man from a radical religious sect in 661C.E. Caliphate moved to Damascus under the Umayyads in 661C.E. Massacre of Ali’s son Husayn and his army by the Umayyad forces in 680C.E. at Karbala led to the final division between the Shiahs and the Sunnis: Commemorated by the “Muharram” Question of succession led to the division between the Shiah or the adherents of Ali and the majority Sunnis

Historically, the Shiahs has been the minority sect

Sunni orthodox Islamic theory maintains that the Caliphate is an elective office while the Shiahs contend that the Caliph as a spiritual guide has broader authority and should be a descendant of Ali, Muhammad’s son in law. It is the religious culture rather than political authority that has brought the Islamic community together through history.

The Judeo-Christian prophetic tradition continues through the figure of Muhammad in Islam

Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar as the traditional ancestor of Muslims Muhammad as the agent through whom Allah communicated with the community

Qu’ran as the revelation and the central miracle in Islam

The Islamic creed or SHAHDA : Foundation of the faith The Qu’ran as the key theological document: The First Chapter begins by encapsulating the essential principles of Islam.  The Fatiha (Qu’ran 1: 1-7): In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. Praise belongs to God, the Lord of all Being, the All-merciful, the All-compassionate, Master of the Day of Doom. Thee only we serve; to Thee alone we pray for succor. Guide us in the straight path, the path of those whom Thou hast blessed, not of those against whom Thou art wrathful, nor of those who are astray. (Tr. from Ruthven. M. Islam)

Few details known about Muhammad’s early life :

Orphaned in childhood and brought up by Abd-al-Muttalib, and Abu Talib Possibly influenced by the meditative practices of the Hanifs First revelatory experience in 610 C.E. : Vision of angel Gabriel and the divine command to “recite” in God’s name (Sura 96:1- 5, Text I, pg.359) Public preaching preceded by initial reluctance

Meccan ministry emphasized :

1) Unity of God and His final judgment

2) Importance of individual repentance

Demand for social justice implicit in Muhammad’s position, problematic for the Meccan elite Denunciation of idol worship also threatened the economic health of the ruling class Resentment against Muhammad reflected in the restrictions placed on his immediate family and followers : Possible threats on his life Emigration (HIJRA) to Yathrib as a mediator between two tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj in 622 C.E. : Beginning of the Islamic era Readier acceptance of Muhammad’s prophetic role and the authenticity of his revelatory experience in the new city: Yathrib renamed Medinat an nabi or the City of the Prophet From one man’s personal experience to the beginnings of a community of believers: The Covenant of Medina (Text I, pg. 337) Religious and civil law from the same divine source at the foundation of the Islamic community : Islam both a religion as well as a community Initiation of weekly community services on Friday, taking up of alms for the poor etc. enhanced the social identity of Muhammad’s followers Gradual conversion of Mecca through wars and diplomatic maneuvers : Initiation of monotheistic practices in Kaba and the destruction of the idols within it Foundation of a community united by the faith in the unity of Allah and the brotherhood of all believers : Umma or the community of the faithful governed by the dictates of Divine law.

Muhammad’s death in 632 C.E. Muhammad’s words and personal example as the basis of faith (IMAN) and duty (DIN) of Islam

Islam based on

A. IMAN (faith)

B. IHSAN (right conduct)

C. IBADAT (religious duty)

IMAN based on the SHAHDA: la illaha illa Allah

God as self-subsistent, omnipotent, and omniscient

Creator of the world and the sole arbiter of human souls on the day of judgment

Differences in interpretation on the question of predestination and free will

God’s guidance through the Qu’ran, and through his messenger, Muhammad, and through the angels

Muhammad as the last of the prophets: Authority derived from God, but essentially human in nature Qu’ran as the central miracle in Islam : Faith in the undistorted and final word of Allah to humankind Allah’s guidance through angels : Resemblance with Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian apocalyptic ideals

IHSAN : Moral conduct flows from Divine guidance

IBADAT : Five Pillars of Islam

A. Creed or Shahda

B. Prayer or Salat

C. Almsgiving or Zakat

D. Fasting during the month of Ramadan

E. Pilgrimage or Hajj

The word “Islam” is a noun derived from the infinitive of a verb meaning “to accept”

A Muslim is someone who submits or commits himself to Islam

A question of world view or perspective :A community of like minded people who have committed themselves to a particular view of God

Muhammad, from this perspective, is not a founder or originator of this view, but rather, a messenger of this view

Thus, Muhammad’s biography of relatively lesser importance than the revealed message : The message embodied in the miracle of Qur’an

The Qur’an itself is the central foundation on which the Islamic faith builds itself

The central creed of Islam or Shahada is the utterance: la ilaha illa Allah; Muhammad rasul Allah (There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah)

Pre-Islamic Social and Religious Context in the Land of Islam’s Origin

Little historical record remain of the early inhabitants of Pre-Islamic Arabia : Indigenous sources remain in the form of legends, and aside from a few inscriptions nothing in writing has been found

Arabs are mentioned in the ancient chronicles of Persians, Romans, Greeks, and Hebrews : Kingdoms in southern part of the peninsula from around 2nd millennium B.C.E.

Pre-Islamic Arabs possibly represented at least two ethnic/cultural groups separated by the vast desert (Al Rub al Khali) in central Arabia : The northerners were primarily nomads, while the inhabitants in the south possessed a more settled urban civilization

Southern Arabian economy based on some agriculture and trade: Well-known in the Mediterranean for frankincense and myrrh (produced from gum resins extracted from trees that grow only in southern Arabia and Somalia)

Map of the Arabian peninsula

Judeo-Christian beliefs familiar to the population: Himyarite rulers converted to Judaism in 525 C.E.

Rulers of southern Arabia controlled the important trade routes of the southern Mediterranean : Mecca and Medina were important stops between southern Arabia and Palestine, Damascus Poetry as the principal source of information : Tribal prince poet Imrul Kais (540?) instrumental in establishing the classical Arabic language.

Decline of the southern culture between 3rd and 6th century C.E. : Nomadic culture from the north gained ascendancy

Despite a few stable settlements in the interior of the peninsula, such as Mecca, and Medina, and some Jewish agricultural colonies in the northern Hijaz, majority were nomads

Social organization centered around the clan with emphasis on unswerving tribal loyalty and collective responsibility

Sheik/Sayyid as the elected head of the tribe chosen by the elders : Authority and prestige based on morality. The sheik would lead the tribe in battle, act as a conciliator when peace was restored, and mediated tribal blood feuds

Pre-Islamic Religious Culture also reflected the social dichotomy of the region : Astral cult in southern Arabia, along with nature worship.

Three goddesses worshipped in Mecca:

al-Lat (mother goddess)
al-Manat (goddess of fate)
al-Uzza (morning star)

Allah as the distant creator God, revered by Muhammad’s tribe, Quraysh Lesser spirits, beneficial angels as well as harmful jinns

Sacred Space:

Kaba: Cube shaped meteorite built into the holiest shrine in Arabian peninsula with images of deities in its interior (reference in Roman historian Diodorus Siculus, 60 B.C.E.)

Picture of the Kaba

Zamzam: Holy well associated with the Biblical story of Hagar and Ishmael

Mecca as the major pilgrimage site in Pre-Islamic times : Four months of the year designated for pilgrimage. No violence or warfare permitted in the area

Confluence of economic and religious interest in Mecca proved beneficial to the Meccan elite: Mecca’s importance as pilgrimage site undiminished after the decline of the southern commercial culture.

Time Line: B.C.E. 853 First reference to the Arabs in an inscription of the Assyrian Shalmanesar III B.C.E. 900-530 C.E.(?) The Minean-Sabean-Himyarite succession of states in south Arabia C.E. 530 Abyssinia’s invasion of south Arabia 570/71 (?) Birth of Muhammad 610 Muhammad’s first revelation 620 Death of Khadija, Muhammad’s wife 622 Muhammad’s hijrah from Mecca to Medina 632 Muhammad’s death; community leadership passes to Abu Bakr as the first Caliph 634 Abu Bakr succeeded by Umar 644 Umar succeeded by Uthman 650 Canonization of the Qur’an.

From Jesus of History to Christ of Faith: Rise of Christianity as an Organized Religion

Resurrection as the proof of the truth of the gospel and the assurance of the presence of Christ/God amongst the early Christians: 3 different incidents reported in the Bible ( Text II, pgs. 258-260/262-264)

A spiritual substance, the Holy Spirit was flowing from the resurrected Christ into his followers, empowering them with the love that Jesus’ mission represented while he was alive Church as the Mystical Body of Christ (John 15:1,4)  Celebration of hope and freedom from fear caused by the belief in Christ’s continued presence (Ephesians 5,6) gave the disciples courage to speak out despite the threat of their likely arrest and punishment

Tension on the question keeping Jewish law:

1. Judaizers/Hebraists (including James, and most of the apostles, adhered strictly to Jewish laws)

2. Hellenists (more inclined to make compromises; included Peter who made more inroads into the gentile community)

Paul’s missionary activity: Combination of Mysticism with ethical principles (“Freedom of the Spirit” and the “Lordship of Christ”)( I Corinthians 13,14)

Balance between non-ethical mysticism and legalism Click on In Paul’s Footsteps for more details on Paul’s Missionary Activities

Christian community within the Roman Empire: Question of divided loyalty? Suspicion, Perplexity, and Persecution

The Ancient Catholic Church developed:

1) a system of doctrine, clarified and declared to be purged of error, and

2) an ecclesiastical organization (Bishops, Presbyters, and Deacons) in order to maintain its inner and outer integrity

An attempt by the Church towards a synthesis between religion and philosophy in promoting a theological perspective

Theology influenced as well as challenged by the Gnostic ideals of the duality of matter and spirit

Heresy of Docetism: Seeming (gk. dokein) reality of Jesus Challenge of Marcionism: Human beings are in bondage because of their bodies, but their souls will find redemption through faith in Christ: Asceticism, celibacy needed to enter the Kingdom of Heaven Influenced the development of Christian monasticism.

Apostle’s Creed as a response to heresy

Christians were granted toleration within the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine: Edict of Milan in 313

Emperor Theodosius makes Christianity an official religion of the state by 381

Christian communities designated by geographical areas (parishes and dioceses) overseen by bishops, and priests, and assisted by deacons and deaconesses who ministered the social needs of the congregation Four Episcopal jurisdictions or “sees” in the Roman Empire by the third century: Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome. The bishops of these cities were called “Patriarchs.” A fifth patriarch was added in Constantinople in fourth century. Authority through apostolic succession Ecclesiastical districts followed Roman administrative divisions: Legal code of the church reflected Roman jurisprudence

Arian Controversy and its response in the Nicene Creed: Whether Christ was a finite or an eternal being?

Arianism, named after a learned presbyter of Alexandria held that Christ was a created being: Considered a heresy by the early church

*Debate on the nature of Christ: Whether Human or Divine or Both?

The Creed of Chalcedon in 451: Incarnate Christ was one person but with both a divine and a human nature. Position accepted by the Greek and Latin speaking churches. Nestorians and Monophysites break away Nestorians: held that Christ had two separate natures, one divine and one human (Syria) Monophysites held that Christ has only a divine nature (Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria and Armenia)

*Differences in language, culture, politics, and differences in the modes of worship, etc., led to the final separation of the Greek and the Latin Churches in 1054

Roman claim to primary authority among the five patriarchies versus the Greek claim of equal authority of all five patriarchies. Papal authority pitted against the authority vested in the council of Bishops

Protestant Reformation during the sixteenth century: Luther, Calvin, etc.: Shift in religious sensibility from iconic and sacramental toward a renewed interest in the word of God as enshrined in the scriptures. Rise of worship traditions in the vernacular, and weakening of the authority of the church.

Catholic response to the Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545-1563) Protestant Reformation

Gradual weakening and decline of the papacy during the fourteenth and fifteenth century Rise of the middle class to cultural and economic self-sufficiency Increasing self confidence of the middle class in spheres of religious competence and spirituality Increasing political eminence of northern European rulers “I say then, neither pope, nor bishop, nor any man whatever has the right of making one syllable binding on a Christian man, unless it be done with his own consent” (Martin Luther) The Church was identified by many as an outdated institution led by a weak and corrupt clergy Martin Luther (1483-1546): The Ninety-Five Theses (October 13, 1517) “Every Christian who feels true compunction has of right plenary remission of pain and guilt, even without letters of pardon” (Thirty sixth theses)

Justification through faith

Universal priesthood of all believers

Married clergy

Mass in the vernacular

The Catholic Reformation: The Council of Trent Redefinition of the Catholic position in response to the Protestant movements of the sixteenth century Council met over a period of eighteen years (1545-1563) and during its course declared the following

Catholic tradition is coequal with scripture as a source of truth and authority over Christian life

The Latin Vulgate (Translation by St. Jerome in the late 4th century) is the sacred canon

The Catholic Church has sole right of scriptural interpretation

The sacraments are defined as seven: baptism, the Eucharist, confirmation, matrimony, holy orders, penance, and extreme unction, all believed to have been, at least, implicitly, instituted by Christ

Justification through faith and good works

Centers of Renaissance in Europe. European Enlightenment and Christian Belief European Enlightenment and Christian Belief Era in European history, cresting in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when human reason rather than spiritual belief assumes the primary role in moving society forward: Privileged position of reason in the regulation of public life Copernicus (1473-1543): Revolutionized the ancient Greek geocentric astronomy with a heliocentric model. Galileo Galilee’s (1564-1642) observations with the telescope confirmed Copernican theories in 1609

Modern History Sourcebook: The Crime of Galileo: Indictment and Abjuration of 1633

Deists: William Paley published Natural Theology in 1802

Click here for information on William Paley

The universe manifests regular patterns that can be described as laws of nature. These laws cannot be suspended by divine intervention: Creator God as a watchmaker who assembles the world and then leaves it to run on its own Newton’s Laws of Motion Emphasis on “self-evident” truths in the American Declaration of Independence Imanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason: Difference between reason and belief

Excerpts from Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason

God as the first cause cannot be proved, as causality is only a part of the framework of human thought process Belief in God is a human response to the idea of the transcendent: Friedrich Schliermacher (1768-1834) defines religion as an intuitive sense of absolute dependence.

Christianity as a religion is based not on theoretical or abstract ideals, but faith in the significance of birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth The most important (and often probably the only) source of information about the life of Jesus of Nazareth is the New Testament: Gospel accounts of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, and the writings of Paul as well as some rare classical sources

The New Testament accounts, however, are not merely biographies, but rather documents of faith concerned with the theological implications of the events in the life of Jesus Historians assume that after the death of Jesus some of his disciples recorded his sayings in what is often identified as the “Q” (German Quelle meaning source) : Q documents on the whole authentic, but may have been colored by presuppositions and possibly included sayings mistakenly ascribed to Jesus Q version may have been familiar to both Mathew and Luke.

The biblical scholars agree that :

1) Jesus himself did not leave any writings 2) Content of the gospels implies at least two sources: Record of sayings ascribed to Jesus, and Contemporary opinion reflecting the understanding of early Christians

The date and place of Jesus’ birth cannot be known for certain: Different accounts give different dates.

Dionysus Exiguus in 6th century C.E. divided the calendar into BC (before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini) : Officially adopted by the England at the Synod of Whitby in 664 C.E./AD

Birth story of Jesus follows the pattern of a life of a hero: Miraculous birth, attempts at his life at an early age, early indications of the extraordinary nature of the child, etc. : Different emphases in different gospel accounts

Jesus possibly received training in the Torah and its interpretation

Encounter of Jesus and John the Baptist: John’s proclamation about the imminent arrival of the Kingdom of God found sympathetic ears in occupied Jerusalem

Emphasis on strictest individual and social righteousness Proclamation of Jesus as Son of God as one of the key revelatory event in Jesus’ life

Jesus began his ministry in and around Capernaum, a small but strategic city on the Sea of Galilee, after forty days of retreat in the wilderness beyond the river Jordan : Charismatic and itinerant teacher

Jerusalem ministry followed an event called “Transfiguration” (Matthew 17: 1,2)

Gospel accounts possibly compress the events of a longer period into one week: Last Supper: Solemn and deliberate farewell meal of fellowship and dedication, of key significance from theological perspective Betrayal and subsequent arrest, trial and execution of Jesus

Faith in Jesus’ resurrection : Beginnings of the religion about Jesus Belief in the ultimate triumph of God-given standards of morality

Gradual crystallization of the belief through three hundred years: Canonization of the texts by third century C.E.

TIMELINE:

@ C.E. 30 Death of Jesus 65 Death of Paul  312 Constantine’s reported vision of the cross (See pg. 305, text I) 313 Christianity legalized by the Edict of Milan 325 First Council of Nicea 381 Establishment of five Christian Patriarchates: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem 451 Council of Chalcedon 1054 Break between Rome and Constantinople 1517 Martin Luther’s ninety-five theses 1534 Henry VIII becomes the head of the Church of England 1536 Calvin’s Institutes 1563 Council of Trent concludes 1781 Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason

For a detailed timeline:

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/cron.html

Christianity takes its name from the title “Christos” (Greek) meaning anointed

Practice of anointing goes back to the Davidic monarchy

Emerged in Roman occupied Palestine : Roman Rule of Palestine from 63 B.C.E.
See Map of Palestine in the time of Christ

Political Instability during the two centuries preceding the rise of Christianity fostered an anticipation of change in the political as well as in the social arena Conflict within the Jewish community on the Importance of Ritual Laws

Inhabitants of the region practiced a variety of religions including:

A. Greek and Roman religion along with worship of the emperor as a semi-divine figure

B. Variety of mystery religions centered around a “savior god”, who had died and resurrected. Examples include Mithras, Osiris, Adonis, Orpheus, Dionysus

C. Judaism, which included the varying worship patterns of Essenes, Sadducees, Pharisees and Zealots Rise of Christianity within the politically and religious charged environment of occupied Palestine  Christianity requires a commitment of faith in the figure of Jesus as the Savior: The story of Jesus’ life lies at the core of Christian belief

The Idea of Creeds: Creeds as Formulations of the Content of Faith

The Function of Creeds in Promoting a Particular Religious Outlook: Individual and Social Implications Creeds, especially before Christianity gained royal patronage, served as tests of the seriousness and commitment of individuals joining the movement around the figure of Jesus. Apostle’s Creed: ( possibly dating back to 150 C.E.) common in the Latin speaking parts of the Mediterranean. No evidence, however, that such a statement of faith was used by the first generation of disciples of Jesus Compare with Nicene Creed, named after the Council in Nicea in 325 C.E., but ratified in its present form in 381 C.E.

Apostle’s Creed:

I believe in God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth; and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead and buried. He descended into Hell; the third day he rose again from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of God the Father almighty, from thence he shall come to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit; the holy catholic church, the communion of saints; the forgiveness of sins; the resurrection of the body; and the life everlasting.

Nicene Creed:

We believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, God of God, light of light, very God of God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made, who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate. He suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose again according to the scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father, and he shall come again with glory to judge both the living and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father (and the Son), who with the Father and Son together is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets. And we believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church. We acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. And we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. (not much known about the successors of David’s line after 515 B.C.E.)

The Hebrew Bible known as the TANAKH (one verse each in Genesis, and Jeremiah, and several chapters of Ezra and Daniel in Aramaic)

Acronym formed from the first letters of the three sections of the scriptureTORAH (The Instruction or Law): Includes the first five books( Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy)/Pentateuch)
NEVI’IM/NEBIM (The Prophets)
KETHUVIM/KETUBIM (The Writings)
BIBLE ( ta bibila) means books: Stresses the written, textual nature of the scripture.

Long history of development in the oral tradition, transcription in writing, and editorial polishing: exact process subject of continuing scholarly research

Writing probably began @ 1100 B.C.E. in the post-Exodus period
Biblical scholarship recognizes more than one source for the texts based upon stylistic and linguistic evidence: Documentary Hypothesis (Julius Wellhausen 1848-1918).

Identifies:

A. Yahwist or J source: Possibly centered around Judah. Possible origin before the division of the northern and southern kingdom in 10th century B.C.E.

B. Elohist or E source: Use of the term Elohim in referring to God. Possible
origin in the northern tradition; dated back to 9th century B.C.E.

C. Composite JE source further combined with a text from @ 6th century B.C.E. : D source.

D. Priestly source: Late contribution from @ 586-539 B.C.E. The Torah probably reached its present form as it was finished and edited by the Jerusalem priests by 400 B.C.E. (?) The formal canonization of the Tanakh by end of 1st century C.E.: After the destruction of the temple for the second time Canonization implies official and formal recognition of the selected scriptural texts as holy by the community itself.

TALMUD : Discussion, interpretation of the wisdom of TORAH

Includes both oral-literary material of centuries of legend and law, moral precepts, and Biblical interpretations : Traditionally, scriptural wisdom to be understood by the way of the Talmud.
Two Talmudic traditions (Palestinian/jerusalem and Babylonian) were complete by 500 C.E. Babylonian Talmud ( more authoritative) and the Jerusalem Talmud MISHNAH and GEMARA : components of the Talmud.
Talmud made up of two kinds of material: Halachah (ritual laws) and the Haggadah (narratives) 600-1000 C.E. : The most productive period of Talmudic scholarship.

Moses ben Maimon (1135-1204) : Influence of Aristotelian philosophy in Guide for the Perplexed

Historical-critical method of Biblical scholarship : Baruch Spinoza’s (1623-1677) Tractatus Theologico-Politicus

http://search.eb.com/eb/article?query=hermeneutics&ct=eb&eu=119719&tocid=73487

Enlightenment Ideals in Jewish Philosophy in the writings of Moses Mendelsssohn

DIVISIONS OF JUDAISM

A Reorientation of World View Theological foundations of European Christian society cracked open with the Protestant Reformation: Social and political institutions underwent profound changes as a result Emergence of empirical and natural sciences and increased faith in individual autonomy led to the displacement of the Church from the intellectual and political life: Rise of social sensibilities where religious traditions and institutions would play a more private rather than public role Reassessment of Jewish identity in modern Europe: Granting of citizenship to Jews (emancipation of French Jews in 1791 to granting of full citizenship to German Jews in 1870).

Judaism as an essentially moral relationship with God: Moral values of far greater importance than commitment to a halakhic legal system

Recasting of the traditional faith in such a way that it would be possible to live as Jews in a religiously neutral society

REFORM JUDAISM: Associated with Abraham Geiger (1810-1874)

God as the principle of moral conscience that unites Humanity Torah as the record of Israel’s discovery of universal morality: Revelation as a moral experience Ritual traditions as premodern discipline for preservation of moral insight. Only ethical commandments are binding on modern Jews.

ORTHODOX JUDAISM: Associated with Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888)

Traditional Talmudic conceptions of God coexist with increased stress on God as an ethical being Torah as the unchangeable record of divine revelation Ritual traditions are binding obligations: halakhic traditions cannot be changed easily.

CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM: Associated with the American rabbis of the Historical School. Jewish Theological Seminary (1887)

Conceptualization of God continues to develop as Jewish moral sophistication increases Torah as the record of Israel’s growing awareness of what it means to live in relation to God Ritual traditions are behavioral expressions of evolving moral and religious insights.

6th/5th century B.C.E. : Downfall of the kingdom of Judah and the dispersal of the Jewish people from their homeland.

Catastrophic event in the history of early Judaism: Burning of the Temple in Jerusalem, destruction of the city walls, and the deportation of thousands of the citizens in 586 B.C.E.

Development of a new institution of worship away from the Temple in a Synagogue (Gk. meeting place) under the guidance of a Rabbi (teacher)

538 B.C.E. : Persian king Cyrus conquered Babylon and allowed the return of exiled citizens of Jerusalem to return.

516 B.C.E : Reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem for the second time

Simultaneous development of a scripture centered worship pattern among Babylonian Jews

@ 458-446 B.C.E. : Establishment of the Torah as the authoritative source of Jewish religious wisdom (Ezra and Nehemiah) : Gradual shift in spiritual leadership from the Temple priests to the scribes and rabbis

Post-Exilic Period: Jewish and Persian Contact

Renewed emphasis on the monotheistic principle: Emphasis on God’s uniqueness and transcendence

Yahweh/YHWH to Adonai (Lord)
God’s presence and relationship with humans, informed through the divinely inspired ethical principle that permeates the world (Isaiah Ch. 2, 2-5).

Influence of Zoroastrian religion on Judaism:

Possible influence of the idea of eternal struggle between good and evil in the figures of God and Satan. Eschatological ideas (ideas pertaining to the last thing or final age), as well as belief in resurrection and life after death?Zoroastrianism: Ancient religion of Iran Ancient Iraninans worshipped nature gods, similar to the Vedic gods of the Indian subcontinent and practiced fire worship.

Zoroaster: Reformer of earlier practices

Date of birth uncertain. Details a mixture of history and legend (660 B.C.E.)
Revelation at the age of thirty: Zoroaster brought to Ahura Mazda in the company of angels Moral standards proceed from one good God (echoes of Vedic Varuna/Greek Uranus?) AHURA MAZDA.
AHURA MAZDA: Supreme Deity, supreme in creation, supreme in value, supreme by the anticipation of the final apocalyptic event Ahura Mazda expresses his will through a beneficial power: Spenta
Manyu
Ahura Mazda is eternally opposed by the harmful powers of Angra
Manyu—Shaitan?—Satan? Human soul as the seat of the war between good and evil: Role of individual choice in the final triumph of goodness Final judgment of the individual soul Scriptures: Gatha and Avesta
The Hellenistic Period.

331 B.C.E.: Alexander’s conquest of the Persian empire

Greek cultural impact brought about significant changes in the post exilic Jewish community (both within and especially outside the ancient land of Israel: Greek style amphitheater and gymnasium in Jerusalem))
Completion of the Babylonian Talmud in 500 C.E. Adoption of Greek styles of architecture and dress Translation of the Biblical text from Hebrew to Greek (miracle of the Septuagint) : acceptance of the authority of the translated text Bible as a subject of literary study and meditation Impact of Greek philosophical discourse on Jewish ideals and vice versa (Philo of Alexandria, 30 B.C.E.- 50 B.C.E.): Morality as an expression of reason and judgment/Wisdom.

Presence of Wisdom as Logos at Creation

164 B.C.E. : Maccabean revolt in Jerusalem as a result of forced Hellenization of Jews in Palestine ( Hanukkah: celebration of the victory of conscience against Antiochus’ attempt to impose pagan rites)

Period of Maccabean independence :164-63 B.C.E
Political upheaval led to eventual Roman occupation of Palestine from 63 B.C.E. (Sadducees, Pharisees, Herodians, Essenes, Zealots, etc.) Zealot led revolt in 70 C.E. led to recapture of Jerusalem and the burning of the Temple a second time Spain as an important center for Jewish culture between 8th and 14th century C.E. under Moorish occupation Expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492.

Dispersal of the Jewish population throughout the Mediterranean region

Spread of eighteenth century Enlightenment ideals in Europe: Freer participation of Jews in the intellectual world; question of faith in a secular culture

1938: German synagogues vandalized; prelude to the Holocaust

Links for more information on Zorostrianism
http://www.avesta.org/avesta.html
Map of Ancient Persia

Bible as a record of the interaction between the Hebrew people and their God

History, according to the Biblical understanding, provides a learning experience The Divine Covenant and Human Responsibility: It is up to the humans to apprehend and abide by the transcendental order Divine expectation of fundamental moral conduct from everyone: Humans do not excel at governing themselves when left to follow their own conscience? Repeated renewal of the covenant through Noah, Abraham, and Moses : Genesis and Exodus Covenant relationship implies a binding relationship between two groups: Ideals of choice and acceptance Abraham as an example.

See a map of Abraham’s journey

Function of Revelation and Prophecy: Instances of communication between the Transcendental power and humans Revelation as an divinely directed event which has a special significance for those who share a particular world view Tension between the way things are and the way they ought to be: Biblical view of history incorporates a hope for change for the better Exodus: Metaphor of emergence from slavery to a people with a destiny and purpose Questions of Justice: Prophets, Kings, and Social Reform @ 1000-586 B.C.E. : Emergence of political identity of the Hebrew people and the associated social problems.

Gradual settlement of the freed slaves from Egypt in Canaan:

From a loose tribal confederation ruled by informal chieftains (Shofetim or Judges) : Samson, Shamgar, Ehud, Deborah etc. To a centralized monarchy: Saul, David, Solomon Construction of the Temple: Priestly and Legal authority.

Emergence of Monotheism focused on the worship of Yahweh

Secession of the northern tribes (Israel), centered around Samaria, in 922 B.C.E. and their dispersal in 722 B.C.E. by the Assyrian invasion Southern tribes(Judah), centered around Jerusalem, continued until the Babylonian invasion in 586 B.C.E.

The Prophetic Tradition:

Based upon intensely personal, ecstatic experience of individuals : Voice of social conscience ? Worked from both inside as well as outside the social, and political institutions of the community Prophets proclaim for God against all unrighteousness and disloyalty against Yahweh.

3 stages of the Prophetic tradition:

1. Guild Prophets (Samuels I, chs. 9 &10).

2. Pre-Writing Prophets (Nathan’s prophecy to David in Samuels II, ch 12 ) : Prophetic experience underscores God’s demand for justice; against individual acts of corruption?

3. Writing Prophets (Amos, Isaiah etc,): Challenged the corruption implicit in the social order and institutions.

A map of Ancient Israel